HOW CARBON BONDS

<body topmargin=0 leftmargin=0 marginheight=0 marginwidth=0> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0><tr> <td valign="top" height=31 BGCOLOR="#006699" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <FONT SIZE="2" COLOR="#FFFBF0" FACE="Arial" ><B>CHEMISTRY SCHOOL</B></FONT><FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#FFFBF0" FACE="Arial" ><B> </B></FONT><FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#FFFFCC" FACE="Arial" ><B>  </B></FONT><B> </B><A HREF="index.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="CHEMISTRY SCHOOL"><U>HOME PAGE - INDEX TO THE LESSONS</U></A>                       <B>  |   </B> <A HREF="what_are_alkanes.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="WHAT ARE ALKANES ?"><U> ALKANES</U></A>   <B> |   </B> <A HREF="what_are_alkenes.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="WHAT ARE ALKENES ?"><U>ALKENES</U></A>   <B> |</B>   <A HREF="what_are_alkynes.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="WHAT ARE ALKYNES ?"><U>ALKYNES</U></A> <B> </B>  |      <FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#FFFFCC" FACE="Arial" >                    <B>                                          </B>                                      </FONT></div> <div> </div> </td> </tr><tr> <td valign="top" height=449 BGCOLOR="#FFFFCC" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <TABLE BORDER="1" CELLPADDING="8" CELLSPACING="0" WIDTH="731" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#993380" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" BGCOLOR=#FFFFCC > <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER COLSPAN=2 BGCOLOR=#FFCCB2 HEIGHT= 35 WIDTH="695"><div> <B>HOW CARBON ATOMS BOND</B></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER BGCOLOR=#FFFFFF HEIGHT= 209 ><NOBR><div> <IMG SRC="bcf96780.gif" border=0 width="150" height="120" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <bR> <div> THE ELECTRON ORBITALS</div> <div> INSIDE A CARBON ATOM</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=CENTER BGCOLOR=#FFFFCC><NOBR><div> <TABLE BORDER="0" CELLPADDING="1" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="487" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#990000" BORDERCOLORDARK="#993366" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP BGCOLOR=#FFFFCC HEIGHT= 166 ><NOBR><div> CARBON ATOMS, </div> <div> HAVE PAIRED, ELECTRON ORBITALS </div> <div> THAT ARE PERPEDICULAR, TO EACH OTHER, </div> <div> JUST AS YOU SEE THEM, </div> <div> IN THE DRAWING ON THE LEFT.</div> <div> <FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#990033" FACE="Arial" >WHEN THE </FONT><B>4 </B><B>RED</B><B> OUTER </B><B> ELECTRONS, </B></div> <div> ARE BONDED TO 4 OTHER ATOMS,</div> <div> AS SHOWN, IN THE SMALL DRAWING ABOVE RIGHT,</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <TABLE BORDER="1" CELLPADDING="5" CELLSPACING="0" WIDTH="126" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#993380" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="NONE" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP BGCOLOR=#FFFFFF HEIGHT= 126 ><NOBR><div> A CARBON ATOM</div> <div> BONDED TO </div> <div> 4 HYDRON ATOMS</div> <div> <IMG SRC="c2b3c400.gif" border=0 width="60" height="64" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <div> (  Hydrogen = HYDRON )</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <div> THE OUTER ELECTRONS, LOCATE, AT THE CORNERS, OF A 4 SIDED FORM.</div> <div> THAT FOUR SIDED FORM, IS CALLED A TETRAHEDRON,  AS SHOWN BELOW LEFT.</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER BGCOLOR=#FFFFFF HEIGHT= 188 ><NOBR><div>            <IMG SRC="bd1795d0.gif" border=0 width="121" height="93" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> A FOUR SIDED FORM</div> <div> CALLED A TETRA-HEDRON</div> <div> WITH AN ELECTRON</div> <div> AT EACH CORNER</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP BGCOLOR=#FFFFCC><NOBR><bR> <div> THE TETRA HEDRON, HAS 4 EQUAL, TRIANGULAR FACES,</div> <div> & THE CORNERS, ARE ALL EQUALLY DISTANT, FROM EACH OTHER.</div> <div> THIS SPACIAL RELATIONSHIP, GIVES TO CARBON ATOMS,</div> <div> THE ABILITY, TO JOIN WITH OTHER ATOMS,</div> <div> IN FOUR, DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS.</div> <bR> <div> AND ALSO, THE ABILITY, TO JOIN, WITH OTHER CARBON ATOMS,</div> <div> IN THE RINGS OF LIFE, CALLED AROMATIC RINGS & ARENE RINGS,, </div> <div> MADE OF 6 CARBON ATOMS AS YOU CAN SEE, IN THE DRAWINGS BELOW.</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER BGCOLOR=#FFFFFF HEIGHT= 254 ><NOBR><div> <IMG SRC="bd390740.gif" border=0 width="144" height="116" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <bR> <div> A 6 ATOM RING BUILT OF</div> <div>  CARBON TETRAHEDRONS</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=CENTER><NOBR><div> WE HAVE USED, THE SAME TETRAHEDRONS, </div> <div> TO SIMULATE CARBON ATOMS, THAT HAVE, </div> <div> THEIR ELECTRON BOND LOCATIONS,</div> <div> AT THEIR OUTER CORNERS,TO DRAW,</div> <div> A 6 TETRAHEDRON, RING OF CARBON "TETRAHEDRON-ATOMS"</div> <div> SO THAT YOU CAN SEE.</div> <div> HOW THE 6 CARBON TETRAHEDRONS </div> <div> JOIN, AT TWO OF THEIR CORNERS, </div> <div> TO MAKE A HEXAGONAL RING. </div> <div> WHEN THEY JOIN INTO THIS TYPE OF FORM</div> <div> THE OTHER 2 CORNERS, OF EACH, </div> <div> TETRAHEDRAL CARBON ATOM,</div> <div> ARE THEN, ABLE TO JOIN OR BOND, TO 2 OTHER ATOMS.</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER COLSPAN=2 BGCOLOR=#FFCCB2 HEIGHT= 50 WIDTH="695"><div> <B>HOW 6 CARBON ATOMS COMBINE WITH HYDRON ATOMS</B></div> <div> <B>TO MAKE AN....ALI·CYCLIC...ONE RING MOLECULE</B></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 BGCOLOR=#FFFFCC HEIGHT= 294 ><NOBR><div> <B> </B></div> <div> <TABLE BORDER="1" CELLPADDING="4" CELLSPACING="0" WIDTH="706" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#993380" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" BGCOLOR=#FFFFFF > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP BGCOLOR=#FFFFFF HEIGHT= 248 ><NOBR><div>   </div> <div>      <IMG SRC="bd671610.gif" border=0 width="113" height="97" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> THE SIMULATED CARBON</div> <div> TETRA-HEDRONS JOINED</div> <div> IN A HEXAGONAL RING, AS</div> <div> SIX CARBON ATOMS BOND</div> <div> TO FORM ALL ALI-CYCLIC </div> <div> SINGLE RING MOLECULES</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><bR> <div> <IMG SRC="c396a620.gif" border=0 width="106" height="98" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div>       THAT HEXAGONAL GROUP OF</div> <div>       6 CARBON ATOMS IS CALLED, </div> <div>       A CARBON ARENE RING. </div> <div>       EACH CARBON ATOM, HAS</div> <div>       2 MORE OUTER ELECTRON, </div> <div>       BOND LOCATIONS, AVAILABLE.</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div>     <IMG SRC="c3a827a0.gif" border=0 width="130" height="122" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div>     IF THE ELECTRONS OF 12 NEARBY</div> <div>     HYDRON ATOMS, ARE ATTRACTED TO, </div> <div>     THE REMAINING 2 OUTER BONDING </div> <div>     ELECTRONS, OF THE CARBON ATOMS,</div> <div>     THEY BOND AT THESE 12 LOCATIONS,</div> <div>     TO MAKE A ALICYCLIC RING MOLECULE.</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <bR> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER COLSPAN=2 BGCOLOR=#FFCCB2 HEIGHT= 39 WIDTH="695"><div> <B>THE COMPONENTS OF THE MOLECULES OF </B><B>HYDRO-CARBONS</B></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 BGCOLOR=#FFFFCC HEIGHT= 584 ><NOBR><bR> <div> <TABLE BORDER="1" CELLPADDING="2" CELLSPACING="0" WIDTH="711" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#993380" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER HEIGHT= 70 WIDTH="121"><div> <B>CH</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=CENTER><NOBR><div>  WHEN A CARBON ATOM, HAS ONLY ONE HYDRON ATOM, </div> <div>  BONDED TO IT,    IT IS CALLED AN ARYL OR HYDROLENE CARBON.</div> <div>  THEY ARE WRITTEN, IN THE IUPAC, RATIO FORMULA SYSTEM.. CH & HC</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="117"><div> <IMG SRC="c2f3a3d0.gif" border=0 width="58" height="61" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER HEIGHT= 73 WIDTH="121"><div> <B>CH</B><B>2</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=CENTER><NOBR><div>  WHEN TWO HYDRON ATOMS, ARE BONDED TO A CARBON ATOM, <A NAME="_methylene"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A>  </div> <div>  THE CARBON ATOM...IS CALLED, A METHYLENE CARBON. </div> <div>  IT IS WRITTEN IN THE RATIO FORMULA SYSTEM.       ( H2C< OR >CH2 )</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="117"><div> <IMG SRC="c2e3e3c0.gif" border=0 width="62" height="60" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER HEIGHT= 74 WIDTH="121"><div> <B>CH3</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=CENTER><NOBR><div>  WHEN THREE HYDRON ATOMS, ARE BONDED TO A CARBON ATOM,</div> <div>  THE CARBON ATOM, IS CALLED, A METHYL CARBON ATOM.</div> <div>  IT IS WRITTEN IN THE RATIO FORMULA SYSTEM.        ( H3C - OR - CH3 )</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="117"><div> <IMG SRC="c31403c0.gif" border=0 width="64" height="60" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER HEIGHT= 72 ><NOBR><div> <B>H3C+CH2+CH3</B></div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=CENTER><NOBR><div> METHYL & METHYLENE CARBON GROUPS, CAN JOIN TOGETHER,</div> <div> TO FORM, STRINGS OF THESE, HYDRO-CARBON GROUPS,</div> <div> THAT ARE CALLED, HYDRO-CARBON MOLECULES.</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <IMG SRC="c33513d0.gif" border=0 width="81" height="61" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER HEIGHT= 138 WIDTH="121"><div> <B>C </B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=CENTER><NOBR><div> IF FOUR ATOMS, JOIN TO A CARBON ATOM IT IS WRITTEN ><B>C</B>< (CARBON)</div> <div> IF YOU SEE A, <B>C </B>CARBON IN A HYDRO-CARBON CHEMICAL FORMULA,</div> <div> IT ALWAYS MEANS, THAT 4 CARBON ATOMS, ARE BONDED TO IT.</div> <div> >C< CARBONS, ARE AT THE CENTER, OF BRANCHING INTERSECTIONS,</div> <div> IN ALKANES, IN MANY ALKENES, CYCLIC ALKYNES AND IN ALL STEROIDS</div> <div> THE <B>></B> & <B><</B> SYMBOLS INDICATE, THE <B>>C<</B> CARBON, HAS FOUR BONDS.</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=CENTER WIDTH="117"><div> <IMG SRC="c354e4d0.gif" border=0 width="78" height="77" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> 4 METHYLS</div> <div> JOINED TO A</div> <div> <FONT SIZE="2" COLOR="#990000" FACE="Arial" ><B>></B></FONT> <FONT SIZE="2" COLOR="#990000" FACE="Arial" ><B>C</B></FONT><B> < </B>CARBON</div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER HEIGHT= 89 WIDTH="121"><div> <B>6* >CH2</B></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=CENTER><NOBR><div>  6 METHYLENE (CH2) CARBON ATOMS,CAN BOND, IN A HEXAGONAL RING,</div> <div> TO MAKE A MOLECULE, CALLED, A CYCLO-METHYLENE MOLECULE </div> <div> OR, BY THE SIMPLIFIED CHEMICAL NAME:  METHILENE.</div> <div> THE <B>></B> SYMBOL INDICATES, THE CARBON ATOM HAS TWO MORE BONDS,</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=CENTER WIDTH="117"><div>  <IMG SRC="c3746490.gif" border=0 width="70" height="73" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> </tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <bR> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER COLSPAN=2 BGCOLOR=#FFCCB2 HEIGHT= 33 WIDTH="695"><div> <B>MAKING LARGER RING MOLECULES</B></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER BGCOLOR=#FFFFFF HEIGHT= 187 ><NOBR><div> <IMG SRC="bd587900.gif" border=0 width="135" height="144" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> A TETRAHEDRON MODEL OF</div> <div> A CYCLO-PROPENE MOLECULE</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=CENTER><NOBR><div> <TABLE BORDER="0" CELLPADDING="0" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="492" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 146 ><NOBR><div> <B><</B> HERE YOU SEE,</div> <div> HOW PAIRS OF TETRAHEDRONS,</div> <div> SYMBOLIZING 2 METHYL CARBONS,</div> <div> BOND TO,</div> <div> THE TWO OUTER CORNERS, </div> <div> OF EACH, OF THE TETRAHEDRONS,</div> <div> IN THE RING, OF 6 TETRAHEDRONS,</div> <div> IN THIS CARBON ARENE RING.</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> • THE IUPAC NAMES,OF CYCLIC MOLECULES,</div> <div> ARE DERIVED FROM,THE NUMBER OF ATOMS,</div> <div> IN ONE OF THE SIX CARBON GROUPS,</div> <div> OF THE CARBON ARENE RING. </div> <div> • BECAUSE.THERE ARE *<U>3 ATOMS</U> IN EACH,</div> <div> OF THE SIX GROUPS THIS MOLECULE, </div> <div> THIS MOLECULE IS CALLED,</div> <div> A CYCLO-PROPENE MOLECULE  </div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <bR> <div> * THE PREFIX <U>PROP-</U> SIGNIFIES 3 IN IUPAC,CHEMISTRY SYSTEM TERMINOLGY</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER COLSPAN=2 BGCOLOR=#FFCCB2 HEIGHT= 35 WIDTH="695"><div> <B>TWO OTHER WAYS OF SEEING A CYCLO- PROPENE MOLECULE</B></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER COLSPAN=2 BGCOLOR=#FFFFFF HEIGHT= 161 ><NOBR><div>          <IMG SRC="c38779c0.gif" border=0 width="375" height="156" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER COLSPAN=2 HEIGHT= 303 ><NOBR><div>   </div> <div> <TABLE BORDER="0" CELLPADDING="0" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="493" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 106 ><NOBR><div>     ABOVE,  THE SIX CARBON ATOMS, </div> <div> IN THE CYCLO-PROPENE MOLECULE,</div> <div> BOND TO SIX PAIRS OF CARBON ATOMS,</div> <div> WITH THEIR TWO OTHER,OUTER,</div> <div> BONDING ELECTRON ORBITALS</div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div>     ABOVE, THE SAME CYCLO-PROPENE, </div> <div> HYDRO-CARBON MOLECULE, IS SHOWN,</div> <div> WITH ALL THE HYDRON ATOMS,</div> <div> IN THEIR LOCATIONS, ON THE PAIRS</div> <div> OF METHYLS IN THE MOLECULE.</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP COLSPAN=2 HEIGHT= 154 ><NOBR><div> SCIENTISTS, DO NOT NORMALLY, SHOW ALL THE HYDRON ATOMS,</div> <div> ON THEIR DRAWINGS AND MODELS OF HYDRO-CARBON MOLECULES, </div> <div> AS WE SHOW THEM, ON THE CYCLO-PROPENE DRAWING, ABOVE RIGHT,</div> <div> BECAUSE IT MAKES,  IT DIFFICULT TO FOCUS UPON,</div> <div> THE COMPLETE, CARBON BOND STRUCTURE, OF THE MOLECULE. </div> <div> WE HAVE SHOWN THEM,  SO THAT YOU KNOW,  EXACTLY,</div> <div> HOW AND WHERE THEY BOND, ON THE METHYL CARBON ATOMS, </div> <div> IN A CYCLO-PROPENE MOLECULE OR IN OTHER SIMILAR MOLECULES.</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <div>               </div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER COLSPAN=2 BGCOLOR=#FFCCB2 HEIGHT= 31 WIDTH="695"><div> <B>LESSON REVIEW</B></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER COLSPAN=2 HEIGHT= 312 ><NOBR><div> <TABLE BORDER="0" CELLPADDING="1" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="716" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 139 ><NOBR><div> • HYDRO-CARBON  MOLECULES, </div> <div>   ARE MADE OF HYDRON & CARBON ATOMS.</div> <div> • A CARBON ATOM, CAN BOND TO 1,2,3,4 CARBON ATOMS.</div> <div> • CARBON & HYDRON MAKE CH, CH2, CH3, CH4 GROUPS</div> <div> • THESE SMALL HYDROCARBON GROUPS, JOIN TOGETHER</div> <div>   TO FORM STRINGS OF HYDROCARBONS,CALLED ALKANES</div> <div>   & ROUND HEXAGONAL RING MOLECULES </div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> • A HEXAGONAL CARBON RING,IS CALLED AN ARENE RING</div> <div> • A ONE ARENE RING MOLECULE IS ALSO CALLED, </div> <div>            AN...ALI-CYCLIC MOLECULE</div> <div> • A MOLECULE MADE OF MORE THAN ONE ARENE RING, </div> <div>            IS CALLED..A MULTI-OR POLY, CYCLIC MOLECULE.</div> <div> •   ALMOST ALL THE MOLECULES, IN THE HUMAN BODY. </div> <div>            ARE MADE OF MULTI-CYCLIC MOLECULES. </div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <bR> <div> <TABLE BORDER="0" CELLPADDING="1" CELLSPACING="1" WIDTH="488" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#C0C0C0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 117 ><NOBR><div> THE FIRST GROUP OF CARBON MOLECULES, </div> <div> THAT WE ARE GOING TO STUDY IS THE <A HREF="what_are_alkanes.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="WHAT ARE ALKANES ?"><U>ALKANES</U></A></div> <div> THEY ARE FOUND, IN ALL FORMS OF LIFE, </div> <div> PLANTS, CRUSTACEONS, FISH BIRDS, ANIMALS & HUMANS,</div> <div> AND THEY ARE ALSO FOUND, IN THE PETROLEUM OILS,</div> <div> THAT WERE ONCE PLANTS, THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO.</div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <bR> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=CENTER COLSPAN=2 BGCOLOR=#FFCCB2 HEIGHT= 20 WIDTH="695"><div> <A HREF="how_carbon_bonds_m.htm" TITLE="HOW CARBON BONDS"><U>BACK TO TOP</U></A></div> </tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <bR> <bR> </td> </tr></table></body>